ABSTRACT:
Autoimmune joint inflammation represents a long-lasting inflammatory autoimmune disorder distinguished by persistent inflammation in the joints, which may result in injury, discomfort and swelling within these areas. While conventional medicine has advanced, there is a growing curiosity about alternative and supplementary treatments, particularly herbal solutions. This review delves into the therapeutic capacity of diverse herbal species that have been traditionally employed to relieve the manifestations of autoimmune joint inflammation. It aims to provide a thorough evaluation of the efficacy of these plants and the potential mechanisms involved concerning autoimmune diseases like autoimmune joint inflammation, multisystem autoimmune lupus and cutaneous lupus erythematosus by examining their phytochemical characteristics and their effects on inflammatory processes.
Cite this article:
Mehul Bhatt. Herbal Empowerment for Autoimmune Life (HEAL): A Comprehensive Exploration Focused on Chronic Autoimmune Disorders Marked by Inflammation and Immune System Issues Multisystemic. Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2026; 18(2):189-0. doi: 10.52711/0975-4385.2026.00026
Cite(Electronic):
Mehul Bhatt. Herbal Empowerment for Autoimmune Life (HEAL): A Comprehensive Exploration Focused on Chronic Autoimmune Disorders Marked by Inflammation and Immune System Issues Multisystemic. Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2026; 18(2):189-0. doi: 10.52711/0975-4385.2026.00026 Available on: https://www.rjpponline.org/AbstractView.aspx?PID=2026-18-2-11
REFERENCE:
1. Pasdaran, A. Hassani, B. Tavakoli, A. Kozuharova, E. Hamedi, A.: A Review of the Potential Benefits of Herbal Medicines, Small Molecules of Natural Sources, and Supplements for Health Promotion in Lupus Conditions. Life. 2023; 13: 1589. doi: 10.3390/life13071589
2. Firestein, G.S., and McInnes, I.B.: Immunopathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Immunity. 2017; 46: 183–196. DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2017.02.006.
3. Feldmann, M., and Maini, R.N.: Anti-TNF alpha therapy of rheumatoid arthritis: What have we learned Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2001; 19: 163–196. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.19.1.163.
4. Elli, F., Govoni, M., Piga, M., Cassone, G., Cantatore, F.P., Olivieri, G., Cauli, A., Favalli, E.G., Atzeni, F., Gremese, E., Iannone, F., Caporali, R., Sebastiani, M., Ferraccioli, G.F., Lapadula, G., and Conti, F.: Arthritis in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: From 2022 International GISEA/OEG Symposium. J. Clin. Med. 2022; 11: 6016 doi: 10.3390/jcm11206016.
5. Phillipson, J.D.: Phytochemistry and medicinal plants. Phytochemistry. 2001; 56(3): 237–243. doi: 10.1016/s0031-9422(00)00456-8.
6. Grindlay, D., and Reynolds, T.: The Aloe vera phenomenon: a review of the properties and modern uses of the leaf parenchyma gel. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1986; 16(2–3): 117–151. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(86)90085-1.
7. Al-Nahain A, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M. Zingiber officinale: A Potential Plant against Rheumatoid Arthritis. Arthritis [Internet]. 2014 May 27 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 2014:1–8. Available from: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/arthritis/2014/159089/.
8. Kiuchi F, Iwakami S, Shibuya M, Hanaoka F, Sankawa U. Inhibition of Prostaglandin and Leukotriene Biosynthesis by Gingerols and Diarylheptanoids. Chem Pharm Bull [Internet]. 1992 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 40(2): 387–91. Available from: http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/cpb1958/40/2/40_2_387/_article
9. Mascolo, N., Jain, R., Jain, S.C., and Capasso, F.: Ethnopharmacologic investigation of ginger (Zingiber officinale). J. Ethnopharmacol., 1989, 27(1–2), 129–140. DOI: 10.1016/0378-8741(89)90085-8
10. Chen F, Li HL, Tan YF, Guan WW, Li YH, Zhang JQ. Validated method to measure yakuchinone A in plasma by LC-MS/MS and its application to a pharmacokinetic study in rats. Chemistry Central Journal [Internet]. 2014 Dec [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 8(1): 2. Available from: https://bmcchem.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-153X-8-2
11. Ayustaningwarno F, Anjani G, Ayu AM, Fogliano V. A critical review of Ginger’s (Zingiber officinale) antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities. Front Nutr [Internet]. 2024 Jun 6 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 11: 1364836. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2024.1364836/full
12. Zhang S, Kou X, Zhao H, Mak KK, Balijepalli MK, Pichika MR. Zingiber officinale var. rubrum: Red Ginger’s Medicinal Uses. Molecules [Internet]. 2022 Jan 25 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 27(3): 775. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/27/3/775
13. Altman, R.D., and Marcussen, K.C.: Effects of a ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum., 2001; 44(11): 2531–2538. DOI: 10.1002/1529-0131(200111)44:11<2531::aid-art433>3.0.co;2-j
14. Feng, T., Su, J., and Ding, Z.H.: Chemical constituents and their bioactivities of “tongling white ginger” (Zingiber officinale). J. Agric. Food Chem., 2011, 59(21), 11690–11695. DOI: 10.1021/jf202544w
15. Thomson, M., Al-Qattan, K.K., Al-Sawan, S.M., Alnaqeeb, M.A., Khan, I., and Ali, M.: The use of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) as a potential anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic agent. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids. 2002; 67(6): 475–478. DOI: 10.1054/plef.2002.0441.
16. Mao QQ, Xu XY, Cao SY, Gan RY, Corke H, Beta T, et al. Bioactive Compounds and Bioactivities of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Foods [Internet]. 2019 May 30 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 8(6): 185. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/6/185
17. Ezzat SM, Ezzat MI, Okba MM, Menze ET, Abdel-Naim AB. The hidden mechanism beyond ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) potent in vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology [Internet]. 2018 Mar [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 214: 113–23. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378874117328763
18. Aditi G. Asole. Phytochemical Screening Of Crude Drugs Of Zingiberaceae Family. 2024 Mar 13 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; Available from: https://zenodo.org/doi/10.5281/zenodo.10815240
19. Hussein, A.O., Mohammed, G.J., Hadi, M.Y., and Hameed, I.H.: Phytochemical screening of methanolic dried galls extract of Quercus infectoria using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR). J. Pharmacogn. Phytother., 2016; 8(3): 49–59. https://doi.org/10.5897/JPP2015.0368
20. Sosa, A.A., Bagi, S.H., and Hameed, I.H.: Analysis of bioactive chemical compounds of Euphorbia lathyrus using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Int. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. Res. 2016; 8(5): 109–126. https://doi.org/10.5897/JPP2015.0371
21. Altameme, H.J., Hadi, M.Y., and Hameed, I.H.: Phytochemical analysis of Urtica dioica leaves by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2015; 7(10): 238–252. https://doi.org/10.5897/JPP2015.0361
22. Ishfaq M, Hu W, Hu Z, Guan Y, Zhang R. A review of nutritional implications of bioactive compounds of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), their biological activities and nano-formulations. Ital J Food Sci [Internet]. 2022 Jul 29 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 34(3): 1–12. Available from: https://www.itjfs.com/index.php/ijfs/article/view/2212
23. National Diabetes Center, Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq, Shalgam DO, Altaai AF, Department of Biology, College of Science for Women, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq, Ghazi HAA mahdi, Hummurabi Medicine College, Babylon University, Iraq, et al. The Active Ingredients and Antidiabetic Effects of Zingiber Officinale: A Review Article. IJHMR [Internet]. 2024 Aug 9 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 3(8). Available from: https://ijhmr.com/the-active-ingredients-and-antidiabetic-effects-of-zingiber-officinale-a-review-article/
24. Jasim, H., Hussein, A.O., Hameed, I.H., and Kareem, M.A.: Characterization of alkaloid constitution and evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Solanum nigrum using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2015; 7(4): 56–72. https://doi.org/10.5897/JPP2015.0346
25. Hadi, M.Y., Mohammed, G.J., and Hameed, I.H.: Analysis of bioactive chemical compounds of Nigella sativa using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2016; 8(2): 8–24. DOI: 10.5897/JPP2015.0364
26. Hameed, I.H., Ibraheem, I.A., and Kadhim, H.J.: Gas chromatography mass spectrometry and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis of methanolic extract of Rosmarinus officinalis leaves. J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2015; 7(6): 90–106. DOI:10.5897/JPP2015.0348
27. Shareef, H.K., Muhammed, H.J., Hussein, H.M., and Hameed, I.H.: Antibacterial effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and bioactive chemical analysis using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Orient. J. Chem. 2016; 32(2): 20–40. DOI:10.13005/ojc/320207
28. Hu W, Yu A, Wang S, Bai Q, Tang H, Yang B, et al. Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Biological Activities, and Applications of the Polysaccharides from Zingiber officinale Roscoe. (Ginger): A Review. Molecules [Internet]. 2023 May 2 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 28(9): 3855. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/9/3855
29. Emmanuel PA, Ahmadou F, Dibanda RF, Dimitry MY, Bassogog CB, Mehanni AHE, et al. In vitro antioxidant potential and sensory characteristics of a common Cameroonian beverage made from a mixture of Citrus medica, ginger (Zingiber officinale) and honey. JAFSB [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 2(3): 209–14. Available from: https://www.currentsci.com/article-detail/139
30. Al-Marzoqi, A.H., Hadi, M.Y., and Hameed, I.H.: Determination of metabolites produced by Cassia angustifolia and evaluation of antimicrobial activity. J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2016; 8(2): 25–48. DOI:10.5897/JPP2015.0367
31. Mohammed AA, Al-Suwaiegh S, AlGherair I, Alessa F, Alhujaili WF. Promising Roles of Zingiber officinale and its Derivatives on Promoting Health and Protecting from Disorders. IJAR [Internet]. 2024 Jul 25 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; (Of). Available from: https://arccjournals.com/journal/indian-journal-of-animal-research/BF-1788
32. Hameed, I.H., Hamza, L.F., and Kamal, S.A.: Analysis of bioactive chemical compounds of Aspergillus niger by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2015; 7(8): 132–163. DOI:10.5897/JPP2015.0354
33. Hameed, I.H., Hussein, H.J., Kareem, M.A., and Hamad, N.S.: Identification of five newly described bioactive chemical compounds in methanolic extract of Mentha viridis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2015; 7(7): 107–125. DOI:10.5897/JPP2015.0349
34. Khurun Hizar SA, Kobun R, Julmohammad N, Mamat H, Putra NR, Sarip MSM, et al. Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction of Ginger ( Zingiber officinale ) Oil: A Mini‐Review. Separation Science Plus [Internet]. 2025 Aug [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 8(8): e70111. Available from: https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sscp.70111
35. Hussein, H.J., Hadi, M.Y., and Hameed, I.H.: Study of chemical composition of Foeniculum vulgare using Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2016; 8(3): 60–89. DOI:10.5897/JPP2015.0372
36. Kadhim, M.J., Mohammed, G.J., and Hameed, I.H.: In vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and phytochemical analysis of methanolic fruit extract of Cassia fistula. Orient. J. Chem. 2016; 32(2): 10–30. DOI:10.13005/ojc/320307
37. Altameme, H.J., Hameed, I.H., Idan, S.A., and Hadi, M.Y.: Biochemical analysis of Origanum vulgare seeds by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Pharmacogn. Phytother. 2015; 7(9): 221–237. DOI:10.5897/JPP2015.0362
38. Zhu J, Chen H, Song Z, Wang X, Sun Z. Effects of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Components of the Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nammi S, editor. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [Internet]. 2018 Jan [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 2018(1): 5692962. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2018/5692962
39. Mahboubi M. Zingiber officinale Rosc. essential oil, a review on its composition and bioactivity. Clin Phytosci [Internet]. 2019 Dec [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 5(1): 6. Available from: https://clinphytoscience.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40816-018-0097-4
40. Jaddoa, H.H., Hameed, I.H., and Mohammed, G.J.: Analysis of volatile metabolites released by Staphylococcus aureus using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and determination of its antifungal activity. Orient. J. Chem. 2016; 32(4): DOI:10.13005/ojc/320439
41. Hameed, I.H., Salman, H.D., and Mohammed, G.J.: Evaluation of antifungal and antibacterial activity and analysis of bioactive phytochemical compounds of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon bark) using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Orient. J. Chem. 2016; 32(4). DOI:10.13005/ojc/320406
42. Lee YS, Kang YJ, Ryu MJ. Antibacterial Effect and Deodorization Effect of Extracts from Different Parts of Zingiber officinale. Asian J Beauty Cosmetol [Internet]. 2020 Dec 29 [cited 2025 Oct 16]; 18(4): 521–31. Available from: http://e-ajbc.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.20402/ajbc.2020.0070
43. Hossain S, Rahman MS, Kona KN, Bari MS, Akter N, Ali MM. Growth Performance of Two Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) Varieties under Different Agroforestry Systems in Bangladesh. APRJ [Internet]. 2020 May 7 [cited 2025 Oct 16];1–10. Available from: https://journalaprj.com/index.php/APRJ/article/view/62
44. Hameed, I.H., Jebor, M.A., Ommer, A.J., and Abdulzahra, A.I.: Haplotype data of mitochondrial DNA coding region encompassing nucleotide positions 11,719–12,184 and evaluation of these positions for forensic genetic purposes in Iraq. Mitochondrial DNA. 2016; 27(2): 1324–1327. DOI: 10.3109/19401736.2014.945576
45. Aranda-Cuevas B, Cortez JT, Vargas LVY, Flores II, Argáez VA, Luis Cuevas-Glory SSP, et al. Assessment of the immunomodulatory effect of Aloe vera polysaccharides extracts on macrophages functions. Emir J Food Agric [Internet]. 2020 May 14 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 408. Available from: https://ejfa.me/index.php/journal/article/view/2101
46. Jadhav AS, Patil OA, Kadam SV, Bhutkar MA. Review on Aloe Vera is used in Medicinal Plant. Asia Journ of Resear in Pharmac Scie [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 10(1): 26. Available from: http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:ajrps&volume=10&issue=1&article=006
47. Harris, E.D. Rheumatoid arthritis: Pathophysiology and implications for therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 1990; 322: 1277-1289. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199005033221805
48. Aletaha D, Smolen JS. Diagnosis and Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Review. JAMA.2018; 320(13): 1360–72.
49. Rathore, B.; Mahdi, A.A.; Paul, B.N.; Saxena, P.N.; Das, S.K. Indian herbal medicines: Possible potent therapeutic agents for rheumatoid arthritis. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2007; 41(1): 12-17. doi: 10.3164/jcbn.2007002
50. Riemsma RP, Taal E, Kirwan JR, Rasker JJ.: Systematic review of rheumatoid arthritis patient education. Arthritis & Rheumatism. 2004; 51(6): 1045–59.DOI: 10.1002/art.20823
51. Handa R, Rao URK, Lewis JFM, Rambhad G, Shiff S, Ghia CJ.: Literature review of rheumatoid arthritis in India. Int J Rheum Dis. 2016;19(5): 440–51.DOI: 10.1111/1756-185X.12621
52. Majithia, V. Geraci, S.A.: Rheumatoid arthritis: Diagnosis and management. Am. J. Med. 2007; 120(11): 936-939.DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.04.005
53. Wu D, Jin L, Huang X, Deng H, Shen Q kun, Quan Z shan, et al. Arctigenin: pharmacology, total synthesis, and progress in structure modification. Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry [Internet]. 2022 Dec 31 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 37(1): 2452–77. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14756366.2022.2115035.
54. Maxwell, J. Gowers, I. Moore, D. Wilson, A.: Alcohol consumption is inversely associated with risk and severity of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol. (Oxford, England) 2010; 49: 2140-2146.DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/keq202
55. Alamanos, Y. Voulgari, P.V. Drosos, A.A.: Incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis, based on the 1987 American College of Rheumatology criteria: A systematic review. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 2006; 36: 182-188.DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2006.08.006
56. Emery P.: Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. BMJ. 2006; 332(7534): 152–5.DOI: 10.1136/bmj.332.7534.152
57. Linos, A. Worthington, J.W. O'Fallon, W.M. Kurland, L.T.: The epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota: A study of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1980; 111(1): 87-98.DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112878
58. Royal College of General Practitioners. Office of Populations, Censuses and Surveys, Department of Health and Social Security. Morbidity statistics from general practice 1971-2. Second national morbidity study. London: HMSO, 1979. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(86)90122-X
59. Wang KS, Li J, Wang Z, Mi C, Ma J, Piao LX, et al. Artemisinin inhibits inflammatory response via regulating NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology [Internet]. 2017 Jan 2 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 39(1): 28–36. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08923973.2016.1267744
60. Silman, A.J. Hochberg, M.C.: Epidemiology of the rheumatic diseases. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/39.suppl_2.3
61. Beasley, R.P. Willkens, R.F.: Bennett, P.H. High prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in Yakima Indians. Arthritis Rheum. Arthritis Care Res. 1973; 16(6): 743-748.DOI: 10.1002/art.1780160607
62. Harvey, J. Lotze, M. Stevens, M.B. Lambert, G.: Jacobson, D. Rheumatoid arthritis in a Chippewa Band. I. Pilot screening study of disease prevalence. Arthritis Rheum. 1981; 24(5): 717-721.DOI: 10.1002/art.1780240515
63. Del P.A. Knowler, W.C. Pettitt, D.J. Bennett, P.H.: High incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in Pima Indians. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1989; 129(6): 1170-1178.DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115238
64. Keefe, F. Bonk, V.: Psychological assessment of pain in patients having rheumatic diseases. Rheumatol. Dis. Clin. North Am. 1999; 25: 81-103.DOI: 10.1016/s0889-857x(05)70056-9.
65. Arctigenin: Harnessing Nature’s Power as an Anti-Inflammatory Agent. Curr Res Cmpl Alt Med [Internet]. 2024 Sep 30 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 8(3). Available from: https://www.gavinpublishers.com/article/view/arctigenin-harnessing-natures-power-as-an-anti-inflammatory-agent
66. Huizinga, T.W. Pincus, T.: In the clinic. Rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Intern. Med. 2010; 153(1): ITC1-1–ITC1-15.DOI: https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-153-1-201007060-01001
67. Edwards, J. Szczepanski, L. Szechinski, J. Filipowicz-Sosnowska, A. Emery, P. Close, D. Stevens, R. Shaw, T.: Efficacy of B-cell-targeted therapy with rituximab in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 350(25): 2572–2581. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa032534
68. Nikhitha JN, Swathy KS, Chandran RP. In vitro anticancer activity of ethanol extract of Adhatoda vasica Nees on human ovarian cancer cell lines. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology [Internet]. 2021 Dec [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 19(1): 116. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1687157X23006662
69. Cooper NJ.: Economic burden of rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. Rheumatology. 2000; 39(1): 28–33. DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/39.1.28
70. Joy S, Prasad PE, Padmaja K, Adilaxamamma K, Rayulu VC, Gangaraju G. Effect of Adhatoda vasica (Acanthaceae) on Antioxidant and Immunological Profile in Sheep. IJAR [Internet]. 2022 Jan 11 [cited 2025 Oct 17] ;(Of). Available from: https://arccjournals.com/journal/indian-journal-of-animal-research/B-4755
71. Khazneh E, Hřibová P, Hošek J, Suchý P, Kollár P, Pražanová G, et al. The Chemical Composition of Achillea wilhelmsii C. Koch and Its Desirable Effects on Hyperglycemia, Inflammatory Mediators and Hypercholesterolemia as Risk Factors for Cardiometabolic Disease. Molecules [Internet]. 2016 Mar 25 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 21(4): 404. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/21/4/404
72. Soeken, K.L. Miller, S.A. Ernst, E.: Herbal medicines for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: A systematic review. Rheumatology 2003; 42: 652-659. DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/keg183
73. Lu Y, Du X, Lai L, Jin H. Actinidia macrosperma C. F. Liang (a Wild Kiwi): Preliminary Study of Its Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 2012:1–7. Available from: http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2012/180262/
74. Chuang, P.H. Hsieh, P.W. Yang, Y.L. Hua, K.F. Chang, F.R. Shiea, J. Wu, S.H. Wu, Y.C.: Cyclopeptides with anti-inflammatory activity from seeds of Annona montana. J. Nat. Prod. 2008; 71(8): 1365-1370. DOI: 10.1021/np8001282
75. Xu HS, Wu YW, Xu SF, Sun HX, Chen FY, Yao L. Antitumor and immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharides from the roots of Actinidia eriantha. Journal of Ethnopharmacology [Internet]. 2009 Sep [cited 2025 Oct 17];125(2):310–7. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378874109003912
76. Choi, J.H. Hussain, R.A.: Abrusosides A-D, four novel sweet-tasting triterpene glycosides from the leaves of Abrus precatorius. J. Nat. Prod. 1989; 52(5): 25-27.DOI: 10.1021/np50065a032
77. Wang W, Wang J, Dong S fu, Liu C hong, Italiani P, Sun S hui, et al. Immunomodulatory activity of andrographolide on macrophage activation and specific antibody response. Acta Pharmacol Sin [Internet]. 2010 Feb [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 31(2): 191–201. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/aps2009205
78. Sulaiman, M.R. Zakaria, Z.A. Mohamad, A.S. Ismail, M. Hidayat, M.T. Israf, D.A. Adilius, M.: Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the ethanol extract of Alpinia conchigera rhizomes in various animal models. Pharm. Biol. 2010; 48(8): 861-868. DOI: 10.3109/13880200903302820
79. Lee, J.H. Jung, H.S. Giang, P.M. Jin, X. Lee, S. Son, P.T. Lee, D. Hong, Y.S. Lee, K. Lee, J.J.: Blockade of nuclear factor-κB signaling pathway and anti-inflammatory activity of cardamomin, a chalcone analog from Alpinia conchigera. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2006; 316(1): 271-278. DOI: 10.1124/jpet.105.092486.
80. Manga, H.M. Brkic, D. Marie, D.E.P. Leclercq, J.Q.: In vivo anti-inflammatory activity of Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). J. Ethnopharm. 2004; 92: 209-214.DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2004.02.019
81. Alok S, Jain S K, Verma A, Kumar M, Mahor A, Sabharwal M. Plant profile, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari): A review. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease. 2013; 3(3): 242-251. doi:10.1016/S2222-1808(13)60049-3
82. Thakur M, Connellan P, Deseo MA, Morris C, Dixit VK. Immunomodulatory Polysaccharide from Chlorophytum borivilianum Roots. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [Internet]. 2011 Jan [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 2011(1): 598521. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1093/ecam/neq012
83. Jagadeesh K, Srinivas K, Revankar S P. Anti-inflammatory effect of Azadirachta indica (neem) in albino rats: an experimental study. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy. 2014; 4(1): 34-38. doi:10.9790/3013-0411-34-38.
84. Mosaddek A S M, Rashid Md M U. A comparative study of the anti-inflammatory effect of aqueous extract of neem leaf and dexamethasone. Bangladesh Journal of Pharmacology. 2008; 3(1): 44-47. doi:10.3329/bjp. v3i1.836
85. Radu A F, Bungău S G. Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: An Overview. Cells. 2021; 10(11): 2857. doi:10.3390/cells10112857
86. Costa JFO, David JPL, David JM, Giulietti AM, Queiroz LP, Santos RR, et al. Immunomodulatory activity of extracts from Cordia superba Cham. and Cordia rufescens A. DC. (Boraginaceae), plant species native from Brazilian Semi-arid. Rev bras farmacogn [Internet]. 2008 Mar [cited 2025 Oct 17];18(1). Available from: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-695X2008000100004&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en
87. Nasri S, Anoush M, Khatami N. Evaluation of analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of fresh onion juice in experimental animals. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2012; 6(23): 1679-1684. doi:10.5897/AJPP12.179
88. Wen C L, Chang C C, Huang S S, Kuo C L, Hsu S L, Deng J S, Huang G J. Anti-inflammatory effects of methanol extract of Antrodia cinnamomea mycelia both in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011; 137(1): 575-584. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.06.009.
89. Kumar K J, Chu F H, Hsieh H W, Liao J W, Li W H, Lin J C, Shaw J F, Wang S Y. Antroquinonol from ethanolic extract of mycelium of Antrodia cinnamomea protects hepatic cells from ethanol-induced oxidative stress through Nrf-2 activation. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011; 136(1): 168-177. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.030.
90. Lu Y, Du X, Lai L, Jin H. Actinidia macrosperma C. F. Liang (a Wild Kiwi): Preliminary Study of Its Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 2012: 1–7. Available from: http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2012/180262/
91. Soman I, Mengi S A, Kasture B. Effect of the leaves of Butea frondosa on stress, anxiety and cognition in rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior. 2004; 79(1): 11-16. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2004.05.022
92. Kumar H, Vasudeva N. Immunomodulatory potential of Nyctanthes abrortristis stem bark. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine [Internet]. 2022 Apr [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 13(2): 100556. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0975947622000158
93. Eftekhar N, Moghimi A, Mohammadian Roshan N, Saadat S, Boskabady MH. Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of hydro-ethanolic extract of Ocimum basilicum leaves and its effect on lung pathological changes in an ovalbumin-induced rat model of asthma. BMC Complement Altern Med [Internet]. 2019 Dec [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 19(1): 349. Available from: https://bmccomplementalternmed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12906-019-2765-4
94. Prananda AT, Dalimunthe A, Harahap U, Simanjuntak Y, Peronika E, Karosekali NE, et al. Phyllanthus emblica: a comprehensive review of its phytochemical composition and pharmacological properties. Front Pharmacol [Internet]. 2023 Oct 26 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 14: 1288618. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2023.1288618/full
95. Saxena M, Yadav S, Bawankule DU, Srivastava SK, Pal A, Mishra R, et al. An Immunomodulator from Terminalia Arjuna and Biological Evaluation of its Derivatives. Natural Product Communications [Internet]. 2008 Jun [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 3(6): 1934578X0800300613. Available from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1934578X0800300613
96. Paval J, Kaitheri S K, Potu B K, Govindan S, Kumar R S, Narayanan S N, Moorkoth S. Anti-arthritic potential of the plant Justicia gendarussa Burm F. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2009;64(4):357-362. doi:10.1590/S1807-59322009000400015.
97. Sharma U, Bala M, Kumar N, Singh B, Munshi RK, Bhalerao S. Immunomodulatory active compounds from Tinospora cordifolia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology [Internet]. 2012 Jun [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 141(3): 918–26. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378874112001870
98. Saxena R S, Gupta B, Saxena K K, Singh R C, Prasad D N. Study of anti-inflammatory activity in the leaves of Nyctanthes arbortristis Linn. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1984; 11(3): 319-330. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(84)90077-1
99. Mungantiwar AA, Nair AM, Shinde UA, Dikshit VJ, Saraf MN, Thakur VS, et al. Studies on the immunomodulatory effects of Boerhaavia diffusa alkaloidal fraction. Journal of Ethnopharmacology [Internet]. 1999 May [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 65(2): 125–31. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378874198001536
100. Somani V, Jain A. Study of Some Herbal Formulations Available for Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment in Indian Market. JPRI [Internet]. 2022 Mar 9 [cited 2025 Oct 17]; 27–33. Available from: https://journaljpri.com/index.php/JPRI/article/view/6046
101. Patwardhan B, Chopra A, Narsimulu G, Handa R, Bichile LS, Qazi GN, Mujumdar AM, Sumantran VN, Pushpangadam P, Mehrotra S, Rawat AKS, Khatoon S, Rastogi S, Raghavan G, Raut A. A synergistic herbal composition for treatment of rheumatic and musculo-skeletal disorders (RMSDs) [Internet]. European Patent EP2175871B1. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research; 2016 Aug 31 [cited 2025 Jun 15]. Available from: https://patents.google.com/patent/EP2175871B1
102. Lee G, Park J, Cho S, Lee D. Centella asiatica extract with increased asiaticoside content and its applications [Internet]. Korean Patent KR102576779B1. ROKYAH Co., Ltd.; 2023 Sep 5 [cited 2025 Jun 15]. Available from: https://patents.google.com/patent/KR102576779B1
103. Chen YC, Lin YT, Wang J, Chiang YH, Chen L. Compositions and methods for treating pain and inflammation [Internet]. United States Patent US11903991B2. SunTen Phytotech Co., Ltd.; 2024 Feb 20 [cited 2025 Jun 15]. Available from: https://patents.google.com/patent/US11903991B2
104. Ghorbani R. Compositions and methods for treatment and management of pain [Internet]. United States Patent Application US20120082739A1. 2012 Apr 5 [cited 2025 Jun 15]. Available from: https://patents.google.com/patent/US20120082739A1
105. Gokaraju GR, Gokaraju RR, Gokaraju VKR, Golakoti T, Bhupathiraju K, Alluri VK. Synergistic anti-inflammatory compositions comprising Boswellia serrata extract [Internet]. United States Patet Application US20190175678A1. Laila Nutraceuticals; 2019 Jun 13 [cited 2025 Jun 15]. Available from: https://patents.google.com/patent/US20190175678A1
106. Plants of the World Online. Images and taxonomic data of herbal plants [Internet]. Richmond (UK): Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; 2025 [cited 2025 Jun 15]. Available from: https://powo.science.kew.org